by Michael Farina
Announced in early October, scientists Jennifer Duodna and Emmanuelle Charpentier have now received the Nobel Prize in chemistry, becoming the first all-female led group to do so. Duodna and Charpentier evolutionized the scientific world through their work characterizing and perfecting the gene editing technique known as CRISPR-Cas9. Using this transformative and intricate system, scientists are now able to target genes of interest in DNA and cut them out at specific points—effectively giving them the ability to remove harmful genes from many types of living organisms, including humans. The technique has far-reaching implications across scientific and medical fields as novel treatments against deadly hereditary conditions, cancer, and other diseases can be created using the system. Additionally, their Nobel win has a huge social significance as the scientists together defied the limitations and hurdles that exist for women chemists.
What does CRISPR-Cas9 Do?
Duodna and Charpentier’s CRISPR-Cas9 system uses the molecules CRISPR and Cas9 in tandem to edit the genome of different species at specified regions. Carpentier initially discovered the CRISPR-Cas9 system in bacteria in 2011. After careful study, she determined that the system serves as defense machinery that targets and destroys different viruses that frequently attack bacteria. It works by deploying CRISPRs to identify and mark the genetic material of an invasive virus that has entered the bacteria and uses Cas9 to destroy that virus’s marked genetic material.
Duodna and Charpentier together applied this technology to humans and other animals. They figured out how to program the CRISPR-Cas9 system so that it can bind to a selected segment of human DNA and remove it. For example, harmful or mutated genes that cause genetic disorders and cancer can potentially be cut out of the DNA!
Obstacles Faced by Women Chemists
This being the first Nobel Prize in chemistry awarded to a team of only female scientists, there were many existing barriers that the women had to overcome to earn their world-renowned “Nobel status.” There still remains a huge gender disparity between men and women in terms of their prevalence within the field of chemistry. In fact, women still only hold just 20% of all faculty roles within undergraduate chemistry departments in the United States. This is due to a variety of factors including a chauvinistic culture in science, women not being encouraged to pursue scientific disciplines in K-12 education, disparities in funding for female scientists, and a host of other issues that still plague the scientific world.
The Royal Chemistry Society in the UK has coined a term to address this low female presence in chemistry—short-term retention. From the get-go, women are not as often hired to faculty positions as men in the undergraduate system. On top of this, they are often pitted against each other and forced to compete for funding that is disproportionately given to their male colleagues. Constantly on edge because of their lack of job security, if they are not able to successfully fund research and publish enough papers, women often compromise and leave the field to pursue other job prospects that are more stable.
This short-term retention of women in chemistry has been shown to be even more prevalent if they have children, as they feel more pressured to stay home and raise families compared to male colleagues because of societal constructs and the high stress and long hours associated with work in academia. As a result, women continue to make up just 1 in 5 chemists in academia, thus, lending them fewer opportunities to compete for and win prestigious awards such as the Nobel.
Reactions of the Scientists
A vital breakthrough in the fields of biology and medicine, Duodna and Charpentier are considered to be two trailblazing scientists that have shattered the glass ceiling for women in the field of chemistry. After her Nobel win was announced, Charpentier spoke to BBC News citing the cultural importance of her win saying, “I wish that this will provide a positive message specifically for young girls who would like to follow the path of science... and to show them that women in science can also have an impact with the research they are performing.”
In an interview conducted prior to her Nobel fame, Duodna came off as quite relatable to the average college student. She stated that she was unsure of pursuing chemistry during her freshman year of college and actually considered switching to a French major due to her struggles in introductory coursework. Nevertheless, she affirmed that her passion for the subject enabled her to persist through her rough first year.
She stated that this passion resulted from her high school teacher who instilled in her that ‘science is about solving puzzles,’ a message that stuck with her throughout her career and propelled her interest in science. In an interview with Nature Magazine, when asked about her reaction to her Nobel win, Doudna stated “I grew up in a small town in Hawaii and I never in a 100 million years would have imagined this happening… I am really kind of humbled.”
The applications of CRISPR-Cas9 and GW’s Use of the Technology
This technology paves the way for many novel treatments to previously incurable conditions. Some notable studies utilizing CRISPR-Cas9 attempt to edit HIV and cancer-causing genes out of human cells. In addition, with over 140,000 Americans waiting on the organ donation list, CRISPR-Cas9 is currently being used to modify pig and cow genes to produce several artificial organs that are so similar to humans’ that they can be transplanted.
At GW, researchers in the School of Medicine and Health Sciences are also making strides in the field of parasitology using this technology. Dr. Paul Brindley, a professor of microbiology, immunology, and tropical medicine within the school, has successfully used CRISPR-Cas9 to thwart the symptoms and risk of developing the potentially fatal diseases schistosomiasis and bile duct cancer. He has done so by editing the genomes of the parasites S. mansoni and O. viverrini, which cause diseases by secreting proteins that damage human tissue and lead to cancerous mutations. He managed to cut out the genes that code for the deadly proteins, thus, creating the leading treatment against the two diseases.
In addition, assistant professor in the Columbian College of Arts and Sciences, Dr. Arnaud Martin, has also reported using CRISPR-Cas9 to study butterfly biodiversity. He has implemented a guess-and-check type model in order to locate and manipulate the genes responsible for creating the color patterns and shapes present on butterfly wings. According to Martin, “There is a lot of value trying to explain the complexity and the beauty of the universe around us, especially living things.”
One of these benefits is seen in one of the many applications of his research—determining the way in which brain cells are arranged and how they are evolving. Dr. Martin has stated, “If you look at the brain...to make very complicated brains you’ve got to make patterns. We don’t know how all these patterns are evolving… that’s where butterflies come in,” exhibiting the practical application of his experiments to the fields of anatomy and medicine.
After years of tireless research and experimentation, Emmanuelle Charpentier and Jennifer Duodna have transformed the scientific world in terms of their brilliant technology and their historic Nobel win. In creating CRISPR-Cas9, they have forged a new path in medicine that will create critically important treatments for incurable diseases and have provided an exciting new way to study genomics and biodiversity. Furthermore, their Nobel Prize has allowed them to push the boundaries for female scientists and has paved the way for a future generation of female scientists to follow in their footsteps.
Michael Farina is a GW Scope staff writer for the George Washington Undergraduate Review. He is a junior majoring in biology and minoring in STEM teaching. He is interested in a career in medicine and is currently a member of GW’s EMS service, Emerg, and also volunteers with the organization One Tent Health on weekends. Through his articles written with GW Scope, he aims to break down complex biological and medical topics in order to make them accessible to the average reader.
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